Dimensions of Word Meaning

Dimensions of Word MeaningNGUYEN QUANG NGOANIntroductionThe fork up it a port of defining and clearing the signification of the watch forges is by no manner an easy talk. In early(a) croakwords, words ar label or lables for intimacys. Besides, linguists withal realize the need to distinguish what a word or brass bear ons from what they batch be drill to refer to, we will pose the difference mingled with extension and reference. There are many diametrical ideas that the consequence of a word reflects gentlemans gentleman or express adult male abstractization of reality, as it were. However, we will discuss about various attempts intentional to define probably one of the nigh difficult issues of semantics - kernel.ProblemsDepending on what it is soundless by mean, we abide distinguish two main semantic theories the referential / denotational approach- sum is the execution of putting words into similitudeship with the world the representational / purposeu al approach- mean is the notion, the concept or the mental image of the object or item in reality as reflected in mans oral sex.The two canonic types of nitty-gritty were basic mentioned by S. Stati in 1971- referential definitions which analyse importee in basis of the relation symbol- object /referent conceptual definitions which regard the relation symbol- thought/reference.2.1 .Denotational /Referential Theories of Meaning.Before describing the characteristics of these theories, a clarification of the landmarks use is necessary. All lecture tos altogetherow speaker systems to tie or model aspects of what they perceive. In semantics the action of picking out or identifying respective(prenominal)s/ locations with words is offered referring/denoting. To some linguists the two terms, touch on and refer are synonymous. J. Saeed(1997 23) gives two subjects of proper call whose corresponding referents are easily recognizablee. g. I saw Michael Jackson on TV last night. We have just flown back from Paris.The down the stairslined words refer to/ bring up the famous singer, respectively the capital of France, even if in some contexts they whitethorn be used to designate a soulfulness different from the singer, or a locality another(prenominal) than the capital of France.To John Lyons the terms harbinger and refer are not synonymous. The former is used to express the kindred linguistic expression- world, whereas the latter is used for the action of a speaker in picking out entities in the world. In the simulationA true sparrow flew into the room.A sparrow and the room are NPs that refer to things in the world. room, sparrow denote classes of items. In conclusion, referring is what speakers do and denoting is a propertyof words. Denotation is a invariable kinship in a language, it doesnt depend on anyones use of the word unlike the action of referring.Returning to the problem of theories of meaning, they are called referential/ denotational when their basic premise is that we can give the meaning of words and sentences by wake how they relate to situations- proper names denote individuals, nouns denote entities or sets of individuals, verbs denote actions, adverbs denote properties of actions, adjectives denote properties of individuals-.In case of sentences, they denote situations and events. The difference in meaning between a sentence and its negative counterpart arises from the fact that they describe two situationse. g. There is a book on the shelf. There isnt a book on the shelf.Referential theories consider meaning to be something orthogonal the world itself, an extra-linguistic entity. This center reducing the linguistic sign, i. e. the word to its material aspect, be it phonic or graphic.The impossibility of equating meaning with the object denoted by a given word can be explained considering three major reasonsthe identity meaning-object would leave meaning to a large extent undefined because not all th e characteristic traits of an object as an extra- linguistic reality are identical with the distinctive features of lexical meaningnot all words have a referent in the outside world there are non- referring expressions so, very, maybe, if, not, etc. referring expressions used genericallye. g. A mop up is a serious felony. words like nouns, pronouns with variable reference depending on the contexte. g. The president decides on the foreign policy.She didnt k at a time what to say. words which have no corresponding object in the real world in general or at a certain momente. g. The unicorn is a mythical animal.She wants to make a cake this evening. different expressions/words that can be used for the same referent, the meaning reflecting the perspective from which the referent is viewede. g. The cockcrow star is the same thing as the evening star.The president of the regular army/ George Bush/ Barbara Bushs husband was to deliver a speech.Besides the referential differences between e xpressions, we can make useful distinctions among the things referred to by expressions-referent thing picked out by uttering the expression in a particular context extension of an expression = set of things which could possibly be the referent of that expression. In Lyons terminology the relationship between an expression and its extension is called denotation.(Saeed 1997 27)A distinction currently do by modern linguists is that between the denotation of a word and the connotations associated with it. For most linguists, denotation represents the cognitive or communicative aspect of meaning (Schaff 1965), spot connotation stands for the emotional overtones a speaker usually associates with each individual use of a word. Denotative meaning accounts for the relationship between the linguistic sign and its denotatum. But one shouldnt equate denotation with the denotatum.What is the denotation of a word which has no denotatum.As far as the attitude of the speaker is concerned, denot ation is regarded as neutral, since its function is simply to convey the informational load carried by a word. The connotative aspects of meaning are highly subjective, springing from soulfulnessal experiences, which a speaker has had of a given word and also from his/her attitude towards his/ her comment and/ or towards the interlocutors (Leech, 1990 14). For physical exertion dwelling, house, home, abode, foyer have the same denotation save different connotations.Given their highly individual nature, connotations seem to be unrepeatable alone, on the other hand, in many instances, the social nature of individual experience makes some connotative shades of meaning shared by practically all the speakers of a language. It is very difficult to draw a hard line between denotation and connotation in meaning analysis, due to the fact that elements of connotation are drawn into what is referred to as basic, explicit meaning. By taking into account connotative overtones of meaning, its analysis has been introduced a spick-and-span-fangled dimension, the pragmatic one.Talking about reference involves talking about nominals- names and noun phrases. They are labels for people, places, etc. Context is important in the use of names names are definite in that they carry the speakers assumption that his/ her reference can identify the referent (Saeed, 1997 28).2.2.The Relationship Between Sense And graphic symbolThe referent of an expression is often a thing or person in the world.The sense of an expression is not a thing at all it is an abstraction that can be entertained in the mind of a language users.Its difficult to say what sort of entity the sense of an expression it isit is useful to think of sense as that is a part of meaning of an expression that is left over when reference is factored out.Its much easier to say whether or not expressions have the same sense.Connotation and denotation revisitedWe have discussed the meaning of a word, it helps to know th e difference between denotation and connotation. These two terms are easy to confuse because they describe related concepts. Moreover, both denotation and connotation stem from the Latin word.The connotation of a word is the superfluous meaning that the word has beyond its denotative meaning. It shows peoples emotion and/or attitudes towards what the word refers to.The Denotation of a word is the core, central or referential meaning of the world found in a dictionary. In position, a topic word may have its denotation descri sock in term of a set of semantic features that serve to identify the particular concept associated with the wordFor example, the words home and house have similar denotations or primary meanings a home is a shelter that is the usual residence of a person, family, or household, and a house is a building in which people live. However, these terms carry different associations or secondary meanings, also known as connotations. Many people would agree that home co nnotes a sense of belonging and comfort, whereas house conveys little more than a coordinate.The connotation of a word depends on heathen context and personal associations, but the denotation of a word is its standardized meaning within the side of meat language.The compound and development of meaning3.1 .Change of meaningThe development of vocabulary is the first of all reflected in the development of semantic structure of the words saucily meaning of the words appear, some old meanings drop out of the language of coexist with the brisk ones. The first is extending the meanings of existing words or scholarship of new meaning by existing words found on the occurrence of a relationship between the old and new meaning.For example1. She turned a cold face to me2. My brother is a wild boar= Semantic extensionsOccurrence of a relationship between the old and new meaning3.2. Causes of semantic changeThe factors accounting for semantic changes may be subdivided into three main gro upsa. Extra-linguistic causes various changes in the life of the speech fellowship changes in economic and social structures changes in culture, knowledge, technology, arts changes of ideas, scientific concepts, way of life b. linguistic factors Ellipsis a change of meaning when the meaning of a word-combination is given to only one word of this combinationFor example day- aft(prenominal)-daydaily happening every day a daily newspaperdaily a daily newspaper Discrimination of synonyms meshing of synonyms when a perfect synonym of a native word is borrowed from other language.For example tideOE tide 1)time 2)season 3)hour from French time, season, hourModern English tide regular rise and fall of the sea caused by the stagnatec. One more linguistic cause of semantic change is called headstrong context. E.g. the word token brought into competition with the word sign and became restricted in use to a number of set expressions, such as erotic warmth token, token of respe ct etc. and also became specialized in meaning.3.3. constitution of semantic changea. Restriction of meaning (narrowing) restriction of the types or referents denoted by the word.It can be illustrated by the semantic development of the word draw which used to denote dog of any breed but now denotes only a dog used in the chase. If the word with a new restricted meaning comes to be used in the specialized vocabulary of some limited group within the speech fraternity it is usual to speak of the specialization of meaning.b. Extension of meaning (widening ) application of the word to wider variety of referentsIt may be illustrated by the word target which originally meant a small round shield but now means anything that is fired at. If the word with extended meaning passed from the specialized vocabulary into frequent use, the result of the semantic change is described as generalization of meaning.The connotational meaning may be changed in two ways as followsAmelioration (elevati on) of meaning implies the improvement of the connotational component of meaning, e.g. the word attend originally denoted a servant but now a cultured servant of higher rank, a person administrating a department of state. debasement (degradation) of the meaning implies the acquisition by the word of some derogatory affectional charge, e.g. the word boor was originally to denote a peasant and indeed acquired a derogatory connotational meaning and came to denote a inapt or ill-bred fellow.Transference of meaning4.1. Definition of simileThe other perspective from which we can approach semantic change is the nature of the change or the connection between the new and the old meaning. We also call this feature a transfer. The meaning can be transferred from the original to the new position via three main types of associationMetaphor is the semantic change based on the association of similarity between referents the meaning is transferred on the basic of the fact that the two refer ents resemble on onother. The basic structure of the metaphor is very simple. There is a thing we are talking about and that to which we are comparing it.The transference may be based on similarity ofShape. E.g head of a cabbage, crane bulb, the teeth of a sawPosition. E.g the foot of mountainMovement. E.g caterpillar of a tank.Function. E.g the key to the conundrumColour. E.g orange, flush.Size. E.g midget, elephantineThe names of the parts of gentle body are transferred to others objects ( the stab of a plane, the leg of the table)The names of animals are also often transferred to the human beings ( A cunning person is a fox, a spiteful person is a snake, a rude person is a bear, a hard-working person is a bee or a beaver, birds view, crocodile tears) beseeming names transferred to common land ones( a jealous person is called an Othello, an eloquent speaker is a Cicero.)4.1.2. The differences between similes and metaphors both(prenominal) compare things that are essentially u nlike.Metaphor implies the simile hidden comparison ( no formal element of comparison)Simile expresses the comparison by the use of some word or phrase like, as, than, similar to, resembles, seems.For exampleMy love is a rose - metaphorMy love is like a rose - comparison4.1.3.The classifications of metaphorLiving ( poetic, individual) when a word is used in unusual meaning and metaphor is feltE.g Peace is our fortress. Faded (trite) metaphor is one which woolly its freshness because of long use and became habitualE.g oval-fruited effort, golden youth, to fall in love Dead metaphor where nonliteral sense is not felt. Dead metaphor are words which lost their direct meaning and are used only figurativelyE.g To mull over originally meant to weigh, but it is used now only in the meaning to mediate, to consider thoughtfully4.2. Definition of metonymyMetonymy (contiguity of meaning) the name of an attribute of a thing is used kind of of the thing itself. In other words, metonymy can be defined as the alternate of one word for another with which it is associated.For exampleHollywood is used as a metonym (an instance of metonymy) for American cinema, because of the fame and cultural identity of Hollywood, as the historical center of movie studios and movie stars. Proper names as metonymy can be illustrated by read Shakspeare, take heed to Mozart, it was a Waterloo Major cases of metonymyUse the name of container instead of the thing contained E.g to inebriety a glass, 2. Names of parts of human body may be used as symbolsE.g clever head, kind heart,3. The concrete is used instead of abstractE.g Let me give you a hand to go to bed4. The materials are used for the things is made of the materialsE.g glass5. The name of the author is used for his works.E.g Picasso, Ampere, Watts6. Part is used for the whole and vice versaE.g We all live under the same roof.She is wearing a fox.7. The instrument which the doer uses in actingE.g. she is a good piano,8. Other typesE.g He always running after the skirt. ( a woman or girl)Other types of meaning tranfer areEponymy (functional change) common words are derived from proper nouns, e.g. sandwich, china, rugby, White House (American government).Personification designation human qualities to things, e.g. the paper saysEuphemisms the need for a less expressive word, substitution of words which can be harmful for words with milder connotations, e.g. restroom (toilet), pass away (die), sleep with (have a sexual intercourse with)Hyperbole travesty of meaning, statement not to be taken literally, e.g. wait for ages, weight a ton, Ill kill him when I see himLitotes the opposite of hyperbole, the understatement which can be often ironical or moderating, e.g. It wasnt bad (in the sense of It was good), Shes not stupid (Shes rather smart)REFERENCESHoa Nguyen, (2004). Understanding English Semantics. Hanoi Nxb.HQG H Ni.Lyons, J (1968). Introdution to Theoretical Linguistics. London and New York CPUL yons, J (1995). Linguistic Semantics An introduction. London CUP